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1.What is Wheat Protein content?

Wheat protein content is an important consideration for all end products (uses of wheat) from bread baking to noodles, paste, cakes, and biscuits. Wheat protein content varies widely depending on wheat class, growing region, type and quality of soil, and of course fertilizers input (amount and timing), nitrogen in particular. All other factors being equal, flour from higher protein wheat has greater water absorbing capacity and thus greater bread volume potential, depending somewhat on the baking process used. Wheat protein content is strongly correlated to wet gluten content and both are used as quality indicators when wheat price is being negotiated between sellers and buyers. While protein content is an intrinsic genetic trait and therefore a selection criterion in breeding programs, environmental impact is by considerably greater than that controlled by the breeders. Wheat and flour quality, however, is further complicated with protein quality, processing, and the relationship of protein and starch specifically in various food systems. Some of these aspects will be discussed later.

2.What is Wheat protein?

Wheat protein is one of the plant proteins (along with soy) most commonly used in meat products. The protein level of finished wheat gluten products is typically 75–82% (dry basis) (Jiménez-Colmenero, 2014). Vital wheat gluten, texturized wheat gluten and isolated wheat gluten can be used in meat products. When hydrated, texturized wheat gluten has a fibrous structure that can be adapted to mimic the appearance and texture of beef, chicken or pork and has excellent water-binding capacity (Chiang et al., 2021). Gluten protein functionality depends on the wheat source and the preparation process (separation, drying, extrusion, etc.). Gluten protein is eminently suitable for use as a non-meat additive in meat products due to its unique functional properties. When mixed with water, it can form a viscoelastic mass. Of particular importance to the meat industry are the binding and film-forming characteristics of gluten that has the ability to interact with myosin (Carvalho et al., 2019). In poultry rolls, the binding ability of gluten can reduce cooking losses during processing and preparation and improve slicing characteristics. Hydrated gluten may be extruded, texturized or spun into fibers to produce a variety of meat analogues. Gluten can also be used as an extender in ground meat patties and as a binder for sausage products (Asgar et al., 2010; Pietsch et al., 2018). Vital wheat gluten has been used in meat products as a binder, filler, or extender. When added to meat products such as frankfurters and bologna, it improves cooking yields, water-holding capacity and batter stability. In restructured meats, it provides several benefits such as enhanced viscoelasticity, color stability, firmness, juiciness and moisture retention. In processed meats, the binding ability of wheat gluten improves yield, cooking loss, adhesion, structural strength, rehydration properties, sliceability and retention of sensory attributes. Texturized wheat gluten has also been added to various meat products (burgers, nuggets, etc.) to improve physical properties and taste of reformed patties or nuggets (Maningat et al., 1999). In general, wheat proteins are potentially good non-meat ingredients for use as extenders or binders in low-fat meat systems. They can be used alone as meat extenders and meat analogue products that can be used together with other non-meat proteins such as soy protein, soy flour or soy concentrate (Riaz, 2001; Orcutt et al., 2006; Liu et al., 2016; Pietsch et al., 2018; Chiang et al., 2021). However, wheat protein is an allergen, so many consumers cannot consume this type of product. On the other hand, meat is naturally gluten free. The demand for these "gluten free" products is growing steadily and must be taken into account when using wheat protein for the development of plant-based products.

3.What is Classification of Wheat Endosperm Proteins?

Wheat proteins have been classified traditionally according to their solubility properties. The first comprehensive fractionation scheme for wheat proteins was developed by Osborne (1907). It was based on the different solubility of the proteins in various solvents: •Albumin: soluble in water. •Globulin: soluble in salt solution. •Gliadin: soluble in 70% aqueous ethanol. •Glutenin: soluble in dilute acid or alkali. Gliadin and glutenin together represent about 80% of the total proteins in flour and are present in approximately equal amounts (Tatham and Shewry, 1985; Shewry et al., 2009; Békés, 2012; Békés and Wrigley, 2016). Gliadin and glutenin are the most important determinants of the functional properties of wheat flour. Ideal dough properties depend on an appropriate balance between gliadin (contributing to dough viscosity) and glutenin (contributing to the strength and elasticity of dough). It is the unique combination of these properties that comprises the functional properties of dough (Khatkar and Schofield, 1997; Wieser et al., 2006). The albumin and globulin proteins are less important to bread-making quality than the gluten proteins (Jones et al., 2006). Prolamins are storage proteins soluble in alcohol–water mixtures; their amino-acid compositions are characterised by high contents of glutamine and proline, which together account for 30–70% of the total amino acids (Shewry et al., 1986; Juhasz et al., 2014). Comparison of the amino-acid sequences of individual prolamins has led to a classification based on primary-structure relationships (Shewry and Miflin, 1985). The three groups are •High-molecular-weight (HMW) prolamins: the HMW glutenin sub-units (HMW-GS). •Sulfur-rich prolamins: the low-molecular-weight glutenin sub-units (LMW-GS), α-gliadins, β-gliadins and γ-gliadins. •Sulfur-poor prolamins: ω-gliadins.

4.What are Examples of application of wheat gluten in food?

●Noodles● * To provide elasticity and extensibility * To provide boiling resistance * To keep the elastic texture of the noodles in the soup * To improve manufacturing yield Recommended: OS PRO, V-75, MG-400, A-glu K, A-glu EC, A-glu WP, A-glu G, A-glu GB, Fine glu NX ●Chinese side dish (dumpling wrapper)● * To provide elasticity and extensibility * To improve manufacturing yield Recommended: OS PRO, MG-400●Bakery products● * To improve the volume rise and prevent caving * To improve workability and suitability to machinery * To suppress dryness Recommended: OS PRO, V-75